Extend Luxembourg, Swiss and Taiwan profiles with sourced context and penalties

Adults maycould grow up to four plants from seed per household and consume at their habitual home and use the harvest there. Cannabis stays prohibited in public, but carryingFor small unauthorised possession up to 3 g became, the law introduced a €145 fine instead ofwarning-payment route alongside a €25–500 criminal mattercourt fine. There is no legal place to buy itLarger personal amounts and breaches of the growing conditions retained prison exposure.[@1]

Luxembourg — Law of 10 July 2023, Mémorial A 408, articles 7-1 to 7-3 IDPC — Growing and smoking weed at home now legal in Luxembourg Wikipedia — Cannabis in Luxembourg

2022-0405-1904

The Legislative Yuan amended the Narcotics Hazard Prevention Act without objection. GrowingMinor cannabis cultivation for personal use in minor circumstances now carriescarried one to seven years in prison and aan optional fine of up to NT$1 million. Parliament voted on 19 April, down fromfollowing the constitutional ruling requiring a minimum of five years and upproportionate response to NT$5 millionminor cases. Promulgation and commencement followed on 4 May.[@1,2]

Taiwan Ministry of Justice — Narcotics Hazard Prevention Act, articles 12 and 36 Taiwan Ministry of Justice — legislative history, 2022 amendment promulgated and effective 4 May Taiwan News — Taiwan lowers jail time for growing marijuana for personal use (19 April 2022)

taiwan-interpretation-790-2020

An amendment to the Narcotics Act let cities runA temporary provision allowed federally approved scientific trials sellingof controlled cannabis sales to registered adult residentsadults who already used cannabis. The law ran for up to ten years, while each trial was limited to five years with a possible two-year extension and at most 5,000 participants. The first openedregulated purchases followed in Basel in 2023.[@1,2,3]

Federal Office of Public Health — Pilot trials with cannabis, legal basis Federal Office of Public Health — FAQs on pilot trials, duration and participation Federal Office of Public Health — authorised pilot trials Wikipedia — Cannabis in Switzerland

switzerland-pilot-sales-2023, switzerland-pilot-evaluation-2025

In Interpretation No. 790 the Council of Grand Justices found the mandatory minimum of five yearsTaiwan’s constitutional justices required a sentencing option for growingminor cannabis disproportionate-growing cases, in the case of a Tainan man sentenced for six potted plantsincluding very small crops grown for his ownpersonal use,. The five-year minimum could still leave two and gave lawmakers a half years after ordinary mitigation. Lawmakers received a year to amend the law; after that deadline, courts could reduce the statutory punishment by up to half in minor cases.[@1,2]

The ruling gave lawmakers a yearJudicial sentence reductions in minor cases did not remove realistic prison exposure or move cultivation above the existing score of 0; the penalty changed with the 2022 amendment later set a distinct band.

Taiwan Judicial Yuan — Interpretation 790, 20 March 2020 Taiwan Judicial Yuan — clarification of the cultivation ruling, 6 April 2020 Taiwan News — Taiwan to reduce penalty for growing marijuana for personal use (11 March 2021)

taiwan-personal-cultivation-amendment-2022

2020-0605-07

hempmedical

patients, trade, hemp, cbd

Taiwan allows CBD with almost no THC, onexplains prescription imports of cannabinoid medicines

The health ministry said cannabidiol is legal for medical and personal use if it contains no more than 10 parts per million of THC. It is classed asResponding to a pharmaceuticalmedical-cannabis petition, so athe Health Ministry explained individual prescription is needed,imports of CBD medicines and since no Taiwanese company sells it, buyers must apply to import it; a seller said nine in ten applications without a prescription were refusedspecial hospital application route for controlled cannabinoid preparations for Dravet and Lennox–Gastaut syndromes. The explanation distinguished medicines from the controlled cannabis plant.[@1]

Taiwan Ministry of Health and Welfare — medical cannabis petition response, 7 May 2020 Al Jazeera — Taiwan's cannabis trade falters as Thailand and Japan cash in (18 April 2023)

A narrow authorisation framework is documented; routine operating THC medicine supply is not verified, so access remains 0.

Possessing up to 10 g of cannabis for personal use is not punishable.[@bag] The Federal Su … on.[@court23] Cannabis with less than 1% total THC falls outside narcotics control.[@law] Outside the small-quantity exemption, unauthorised personal-use possession is punishable by a fine under article 19a; minor cases may be discontinued.[@court23]

Pilot trials may supply flower, hashish, extracts and products intended for eating or drinking, subject to quality controls.[@faq] Products below 1% THC still face rules for their category, such as medicines, food or tobacco products.[@law] Cannabinoids and cannabinoid-containing extracts sold as foods require novel-food authorisation.[@food]

faq, law, food

PossessingPersonal possession up to 10 g for personal use is exempt from punishment, whileunpunished and protected against confiscation for destruction; consuming itcannabis can still bring a fine.[@court23,bag] Driving rules separately presume unfitness onceThe driving section explains a separate whole-blood THC reaches 1threshold and its measurement-confidence deduction.5 micrograms per litre of blood[@drive,drive_tolerance] Prescribed use has a rule upheld bydistinct exception to the Federal Supreme Courtautomatic finding of unfitness.[@drivevrv]

court23, bag, drive, drive_tolerance, vrv

A 2020 study led by Addiction Switzerland, based on research in Vaud and extrapolated nati … co and illegal cannabis being mixed with cheaper legal CBD products.[@swi20] In the later scientific trials, the federaluniversity evaluation reports thatfound legal outlets had become the main source for most participants obtained their cannabis exclusively through the legal trial supply.[@resultsevaluation2025]

swi20, resultsevaluation2025

Hadorn, Mavrot and Novet — Cannabis pilot trials in Swiss cities, Part Two: executive summary, 17 November 2025 Federal Office of Public Health — Pilot trials with cannabis: legal basis and ten-year experimental article 15 unchanged

upto 10 g · treatment legal · note Personal-use possession is not punishable and cannot be confiscated for destruction; consuming it remains separately punishable, over 10 g · treatment criminal · term Personal-use offence · note A fine under article 19a; minor cases may be discontinued. Supply offences have different penalties

pilot

Registered trial participants can buy controlled cannabis products through approved outlets, including pharmacies and social clubs.[@faq] The studies accept adults who already use cannabis and live in the participating canton.[@participation] Outside those routes, the general supply ban remains, while products below 1% THC follow separate product rules.[@law]

faq, participation, law

high

Hemp below 1% total THC falls outside narcotics control, with separate rules depending on whether it is sold as a medicine, food or smoking product.[@law] Low THC alone does not make CBD foods marketable: cannabinoid-rich extracts generally require novel-food authorisation.[@food] Ordinary hemp seeds and seed oil have a different food history from cannabinoid extracts.[@food]

law, food

licensed

Researchers can seek federal permission for controlled adult-use supply trials, with defined populations, products and evaluation plans.[@pilotbasis,faq] Lausanne and Northwestern Switzerland universities evaluated seven trials containing about 10,400 adults in June 2025.[@evaluation2025] Their report combines trial data, case studies and expert interviews; early movement towards legal supply describes enrolled participants, not the whole country.[@evaluation2025]

pilotbasis, faq, evaluation2025

Since 2023 adultsAdults may grow four plants from seed per household and consumeuse their harvest at home. Carrying up to 3 g in public isSmall possession elsewhere can bring a €145 warning payment or a criminal fine. There is no legal recreational retail market.

AtAdults may keep the harvest of their lawful home there is no gram limit on what your own-grown plants produceat home. In publicAway from the authorised home, cannabis is still prohibited: carryingpersonal possession up to 3 g is no longercan be settled by a crime but brings a €145 fine, and anything above 3 gwarning payment; the court alternative is a €25–500 criminal offencefine. So Above 3 g, the personal-possession range is only really free inside your own homeeight days to six months and/or €251–2,500.[@loi2023]

mondaq, cmsloi2023

Since 21 July 2023 adultsAdults may grow up to four plants per household — not per person — from seed, at their usualhome or habitual residence, indoors or out as long as the plants cannot be seen from theof public roadview. ExceedingMore than four plants, or growing elsewhere is a criminal offence with finescultivation outside the authorised location, carries eight days to five years and/or €500–250,000.[@loi2023]

mondaq, idpcloi2023

Home usecultivation and growinguse are allowed within the limits are unpunished, and small publicconditions. Small unauthorised possession iscan receive a fixed fine rather than€145 warning payment or a prosecutioncriminal fine. AboveMore than 3 g in public, more than four plants,breaches of the cultivation conditions and any supply remain criminaluse in specified settings can bring prison.[@homeguide]

mondaq, cmshomeguide

LegalAdults may use their lawful harvest at home only. Consumption in public remains prohibitedPublic use can receive a €145 warning payment or €25–500 criminal fine. Use at work, and using in frontschools or in the presence of minors is an aggravating circumstancecan bring eight days to six months and/or €251–2,500; using together with minors carries six months to two years and/or €500–25,000.[@homeguide]

idpc, mondaqhomeguide

Whatever a household makes from its four plants for its own use. Nothing may be sold; low-THC hemp products are sold under separate rules.

guide, cms

MedicalPatients obtain prescribed cannabis has been available since 2018 forfree from hospital pharmacies, through a short list of conditions such as chronicdoctor with the required certified training.[@patientguide] Eligibility covers specified severe pain conditions, chemotherapy-related nausea or vomiting, and multiple-sclerosis spasticity; patients must meet a residence, prescribed by trained doctorsnationality or Luxembourg insurance condition.[@patientguide] From January 2025 the programme reduced the flower allowance to 60 g per 28 days and dispensed freestopped restocking THC-dominant flower, with existing stock dispensable until exhausted.[@med2025,medfaq] CBD-dominant and balanced flower and three cannabinoid profiles of charge by hospital pharmaciesoil remained in the announced programme.[@med2025]

guidepatientguide, med2025, medfaq

ThePaying a €145 fine leaves nowarning and receiving a court-imposed criminal record. Drugfine are different outcomes under the small-driving law usespossession procedure.[@loi2023] Driving has a very low THC bloodseparate offence threshold, so a home user can be over the limit well after use of 1 ng/mL or more in blood serum.[@healthfaq] Home-growing permission provides no exemption from that road rule.[@healthfaq]

mondaqloi2023, guidehealthfaq

Nobody can buy cannabis legally in Luxembourg, resident orRecreational shops are not authorised. The only lawful source is up to four plants grown at a person's own habitual residence, which a[@homeguide] A visitor does not have, and passing cannabis to someone else is banned. In public a visitor is treated like anyone else:carrying up to 3 g bringsaway from an authorised residence can receive the €145 warning payment or a criminal fine of 145 euros, more than that; larger amounts can bring prison.[@loi2023] Medical eligibility is broader than residence alone: Luxembourg nationality or insurance can also qualify a criminal offencepatient, subject to the programme’s medical conditions.[@patientguide]

pplu25homeguide, loi2023, patientguide

Luxembourg Health Ministry — Home cultivation: permissions and applicable sanctions Luxembourg Health Ministry — Changes to the medical cannabis programme, 29 November 2024 Luxembourg Health Ministry — Medical cannabis FAQ: flower stock replenishment from 1 January 2025 Luxembourg Health Ministry — Cannabis and hemp products, medical eligibility and hospital dispensing Luxembourg food-safety authority — Hemp/cannabis and CBD extracts 13 unchanged

EUR

upto 3 g · treatment criminal · fine 500 · note Away from the authorised home; €145 warning payment is an alternative to court. Lawfully grown harvest may be kept at home, over 3 g · treatment criminal · prison min 8 days · prison 6 months · fine 2500 · note Unauthorised personal possession; the home-grown harvest exception remains separate

EUR

upto 4 plants · treatment legal · note Adults, from seed, per household, at the authorised residence and hidden from public view, over 4 plants · treatment criminal · prison min 8 days · prison 5 years · fine 250000, label Cultivation outside the authorised residence · treatment criminal · prison min 8 days · prison 5 years · fine 250000 · note Applies even within the four-plant cap

Home growing is the lawful personal supply route: adults can raise four plants from seed per household at their usual residence.[@loi2023] The permission does not create shops or a right to pass cannabis to another household.[@homeguide] Carrying the harvest away from home brings the separate possession rules into play.[@loi2023]

loi2023, homeguide

standard

Hemp from authorised industrial varieties is treated separately, with a field-crop THC reference of 0.3%.[@foodhemp] That crop threshold does not authorise the same concentration in food.[@foodhemp] Hemp seeds and their oil have an established food use, while cannabinoid-rich CBD extracts require novel-food authorisation before sale as food.[@foodhemp]

foodhemp

limited

Home-grown harvest may stay at home; up to 3 g elsewhere can bring a €145 warning payment or criminal fine

limited

Fine or prison

Small unauthorised possession can bring a warning payment or criminal fine; over 3 g and cultivation breaches can bring prison

nonelimited

GrowingCultivating cannabis was punished with a minimum ofintent to manufacture narcotics carries at least five years until the Constitutional Court found that disproportionateand an optional fine up to NT$5 million. ASince 4 May 2022 amendment set, minor personal-use cases carry one to seven years and aan optional fine of up to NT$1 million for growing for personal use where.[@moj,mojhistory] The lower band requires those circumstances are minor; it is not a permitted plant allowance.[@courtclarification] The ordinary fixed-term ceiling for the general tier is fifteen years, before any separately applicable enhancement.[@code33]

tnmoj, tsmojhistory, courtclarification, code33

NoneIndividual prescription imports of CBD medicines are possible; specified hospitals may apply for controlled cannabinoid preparations for two rare epilepsy syndromes. Routine operating THC supply was not verified.[@moh2020]

ajmoh2020

CBD is regulated as a medicine and may be imported for personal use with a prescription; THC content must be negligible.

aj, ts

No medical cannabis programme beyond prescription CBD medicines have a prescription-and-import route, with individual approval required for personal imports.[@moh2020] The Health Ministry also describes a special hospital application route for controlled cannabinoid preparations for Dravet and Lennox–Gastaut syndromes.[@moh2020] This is a narrow authorisation framework; routine patient dispensing of THC preparations was not established in the reviewed evidence.[@moh2020]

ajmoh2020

Taiwan Judicial Yuan — Interpretation 790, 20 March 2020 Taiwan Judicial Yuan — Clarification of the minor-cultivation ruling, 6 April 2020 Taiwan Ministry of Justice — Narcotics Hazard Prevention Act legislative history Taiwan Ministry of Health and Welfare — Response to medical cannabis petition, 7 May 2020 Taiwan Food and Drug Administration — Hemp-seed oil cosmetics and THC residues, 19 January 2026 Taiwan Criminal Code — article 33, ordinary fixed-term imprisonment ceiling 6 unchanged

TWD

over 0 plants · treatment criminal · prison min 1 year · prison 7 years · fine 1000000 · note Minor personal-use cultivation under article 12(3); the circumstances, not a plant-count cap, determine eligibility, label Cultivation with intent to manufacture outside the minor personal-use tier · treatment criminal · prison min 5 years · prison 15 years · fine 5000000 · note Five-year minimum under article 12(2); ordinary fixed-term ceiling under Criminal Code article 33

Holding, using and growing cannabis remain controlled offences; the lower personal-growing band still carries prison.[@moj] The court identifies very small crops for the grower’s own use as an example of a minor case, leaving the assessment to judges.[@courtclarification] There is no adult-use retail permission in these provisions.[@moj]

moj, courtclarification

CBD is regulated separately from cannabis and THC as a medicine.[@moh2020] Product-specific exceptions need separate reading: the 2026 cosmetics guidance allows hemp-seed oil ingredients only with a final-product THC residue of no more than 10 ppm.[@cosmetics2026] That cosmetic threshold is not a permission to grow cannabis plants.[@moj,cosmetics2026]

moh2020, cosmetics2026, moj

limited

Narrow prescription/import and special hospital authorisation routes exist; routine THC dispensing was not verified